Independent Balochistan - A Reality in Making

Freedom! That's no longer merely a word. It's a cry against the Punjabi imperialism. Punjabi military atrocities on the Baloch people know no limit. The infamous intelligence agencies of Pakistan pick up Baloch men and return them as dead bodies. Even the Baloch women and children have not been spared. Pakistani has even used gunship helicopters to crush a legitimate freedom struggle against oppression. Besides this, the Pakistani state has been exploiting the natural resources of Balochistan without giving much in return to the people.

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Balochistan is located in the eastern end of the Indian subcontinent. One of the earliest settlements in the South Asia is found here. The Mehergarh culture is perhaps the oldest of the old in the subcontinent. All students of Ancient Indian History study about it. The region was an integral part of the Harappan civilization. Indians relate to the Harappans as their ancestors and on that basis proudly claim that their civilization is 5000 years old. On the other hand, the Islamic Republic of Pakistani has never happily accepted its pre-8th century past. For most Pakistanis the history begins with the Arab invasions of their country. They take pride in the victory of Muhammad bin Qasim over the native Hindu ruler of Sindh. In this process, they negate the ancient history of Sindh and Balochistan.

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The Indian government history books also do give importance to the medieval and modern history of Balochistan. They focus on the empires that ruled from Delhi, thus diminishing the value of histories of different regions of the subcontinent, especially Balochistan. Though Sindh is given some mention in the establishment of the British rule in India, Balochistan is virtually forgotten. As a result very few Indian history students know about the past of the Baloch tribes. It is deliberately left for the amateur history enthusiasts.

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But things are changing today, not in respect of Indian Government's ignorant attitude towards Balochistan but in the interests of individual Indians concerned about their neighbourhood. The credit for this change goes to the Internet in general and social networking sites, such as YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter, in particular. Many Indians now know what's going on in Balochistan. The Balochs probably would be the most pro-India people living in Pakistan. They see the Pakistani state as a ruthless oppressor. As a colonialist who is sucking their land dry and in return giving back the bullet-ridden bodies of their loved ones. There is an intense hatred in the hearts of Balochs for the Punjabi military establishment. The Balochs, who have been secular and tolerant in their approach towards the Hindu minority, see Islamabad as the headquarter of terror which is not only repressing the Baloch nationalism but also bringing a bad name to Islam by giving direct and indirect support to the Afghan Taliban to achieve its goal of "strategic depth" in the region against India.

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Baloch nationalist leader Brahamdagh Bugti has said that he is ready to take help from anybody, even from the Devil, for his struggle for independence. No surprise that the Pakistani secret agencies want him dead. Allah Nazar Baloch is another nationalist leader who is waging a guerrilla war against the Pakistani forces in the mountains of Balochistan. The Baloch freedom struggle is not an Islamist one. We cannot compare it with the Islamist movement of Kashmir where the goal is to establish Nizam-e-Mustapha or the Islamic rule. The Balochs have shown no hostility towards Hindus and other minorities living in Balochistan.

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Indians have to give serious thought to the genuine demands of the Baloch people. We have to raise the issue of human rights violations of the Baloch people. Indian media, which makes a lot of hue and cry for the civil rights of poor Indian Muslims, is almost blind on this issue.

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The love and admiration of the Balochs for India was seen on the India-Pakistan cricket semi-final of the Asia Cup in Bagladesh a few days ago. There was a huge cheering for Team India from the Baloch nationalists on the Internet. In conclusion, Indians have always supported the suppressed people be it Tibetis, Bangladeshis, Sri Lankans, or Afghans. Then why are we turning a blind eye on the Balochs?

The Abbasid Takeover

The Umayyads ruled the Islamic world from 661 to 750 AD. During their rule Iran, North Africa, and other regions of West and Central Asia were invaded and conquered by the Muslims. Though there were more non-Arabs in the Umayyad empire the polity was dominated by the Arabs. This led to a growing discontent among the non-Arab subjects, especially among the Iranis. Arabic was the official language of the empire but only about 1/5 of the subjects could understand or speak it.

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All non-Arab subjects of the empire were called "mawalis". They were treated as second-class people in the Arab society. As a result there was growing dissent among the mawalis against the Umayyads. The Abbasids, who belonged to the same Quraysh tribe as the Umayyads, fully exploited this discontent among the people. To remove the Umayyads from power they adopted two strategies: "dawah" and "daulah".

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Dawah means to propagate the message of Islam. Prophet Muhammad used it to spread the Islamic religion. The Abbasids used dawah as a clandestine propaganda against the Umayyads. They floated ideas that the Umayyads were not following the true teachings of Muhammad and their conduct is un-Islamic. This propaganda was prevalent for many before the actual toppling of the Umayyad rule in 750 AD. The Abbasids got much support from the Iranis. The Abbasid revolution started in the north-eastern region of Iran. A number of Islamic sects including the Shias backed the Abbasids.

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Daulah refers to the armed struggle against the Umayyads. Whereas dawah was non-violent daulah included an armed revolt against the Umayyads. The Abbasid revolution began in 747 AD and many wars were fought against the Umayyads in the next 3-4 years. The Umayyads were defeated in 750 AD and Abu al-'Abbas al-Saffah established a new dynasty. The Abassids were the distant cousins of Prophet Muhammad. They were the descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas and the successors of his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abu Talib.

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The advent of the Abbasid rule brought radical changes in the Islamic caliphate. Since the Abbasids were supported by non-Arabs and Iranis, a large number of these people were included in the governance. The political supremacy of the Arabs was undermined. The Abbasids advocated the so-called fundamentals of Islam like equality of all Muslims. Therefore, Arabs became a minority in the new Islamic system of polity. Persian language was revived and it became the language of the Muslim elite and Islam.

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Later, Turkish slaves were assimilated in the Abbasid empire as "ghulams". These slaves were mainly used in the army as Turks were considered strong and loyal. The Abbasid era is also known as the "Golden Age of Islam". Explorations, territorial expansion, and advancements in the fields of science, medicine, mathematics, and literature took place in this period. Harun al-Rashid was a well known Abbasid caliph. The famous "One Thousand and One Nights" was composed during the Abbasid rule.

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The Abbasids ruled for around 500 years. Their rule came to an end in 1258 AD when the Mongols under Hulagu Khan sacked their capital Baghdad and killed the last Abbasid caliph.

A Brief Introduction of Islam

Islam was born in Mecca. The 7th century Arabian peninsula was divided into different tribes, most of them were Pagans. Christian and Jewish clans were also there. Mecca was the commercial centre of Arabia. It was also the religious site of various Pagan Arabs. Kaaba with its 360 idols of Arab Gods and Goddesses was located in Mecca. Arabia of that time was the neighbour of two major empires of the world: the Byzantine empire and the Sassanid empire. The former was Christian and the latter was Zoroastrian.

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Mecca was dominated by the Quraysh. It was in this tribe Muhammad, the founder of Islam, was born (c 570 AD). His father Abdullah had died few months before his birth. His mother Amina died when he was six. He was raised by his uncle Abu Talib. Muhammad became a trader at a young age. He was employed by a wealthy Meccan woman Khadija to lead her trade caravans to various regions of West Asia. At the age of 25 Muhammad married Khadija. He used to go to Mount Hira near Mecca to meditate in a cave. In 610 AD, he was visited by angel Gabriel. Muhammad received revelations of Allah from him throughout his remaining life. These revelations were later compiled into a book called Quran. Muhammad was told that he is the last messenger of Allah.

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Islam is derived from the Arabic root word "aslama" which means submission or surrender. There are five pillars of Islam:

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1. Shahadah: It is the testimony of the oneness of Allah and prophethood of Muhammad. Every Muslim has to recite, "There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is His messenger".

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2. Salah: It is also called "namaz" in Persian. A Muslim has to offer ritual prayers five times a day facing Kaaba.

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3. Sawm: It is the ritual fasting during the Islamic holy month of Ramadan from dawn to dusk.

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4. Zakat: It is the poor tax that every Muslim has to pay to the Islamic state.

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5. Hajj: It is the pilgrimage that every able-bodied Muslim is supposed to perform if he could afford it at least once in a life time.

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When Muhammad started claiming prophethood and preaching Islam and monotheism, Meccans didn't like it. Muhammmad spoke against polytheism which was the Arab way of life. After the death of his first wife and uncle, Muhammad decided to leave Mecca. The Meccan Pagans were getting impatient with Muhammad's rampant hatred for Arab polytheism.

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In 622 AD Muhammad left Mecca with his small group of followers and migrated to Medina (originally known as Yathrib) which was around 200 miles north. This migration is known as hijra. The Islamic calendar begins from this year. Medina was the rival city of Mecca. Its people were jealous of the achievements of Meccans. They welcomed Muhammad and agreed to give him shelter and protection.

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From Medina Muslims used to raid the Meccan caravans. In 624 AD Muslims defeated the Meccans in the Battle of Badr. The following year Meccans were victorious in the Battle of Uhud. In 627 AD Muslims again beat the Meccans in the Battle of Trench. Later the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Muslims and Meccans. Gradually the power of Muhammad began to rise as Muslims converted various tribes of Arabia into Islam by persuasion, threat or force. The first Islamic state was established in Medina. In 630 AD Muhammad captured and occupied Mecca. He destroyed all the 360 idols of Kaaba except the Black Stone. Pagan Meccans were given the choice either to convert to Islam or get killed.

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Muhammad died in 632 AD. After him his friend and father-in-law Abu Bakr became the first caliph of Muslims. By the time of Muhammad virtually the whole of Arabia was made to convert to Islam. But after his death many Arab tribes revolted against the authority of the caliph. The battles waged by Abu Bakr against the rebels are known as the Ridda Wars. After Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abu Talib became caliphs. These first four caliphs are known as the Rashidun or Rightly Guided caliphs by the Sunnis. They all were the companions of Muhammad.

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After Ali, Muawiyah who was the governor of Syria became the caliph. This was the advent of the Umayyad dynasty. They shifted the capital of the Arab empire to Damascus in Syria. In 750 AD the Abbasids removed the Umayyad and established their rule. They shifted the capital to Baghdad in Iraq. The Abbasid rule (750-1258 AD) is also known as the "Islamic Golden Period". In 1258 AD the Mongol ruler Hulagu Khan destroyed Baghdad and brought and end to the Abbasid rule.

The Early Medieval India Debate

The debate of the nature of early medieval India is going on for last couple of decades. Early medieval could be understood as the period between ancient and medieval. This era like its predecessor and successor has a personality of its own. It's not merely a time span between 4th-5th century and 12th century. The early medieval period shows transition, changes, and developments taking place in society, economy, polity, and agriculture. The most significant change that can only be seen in this period is the expansion of the land grants system. These land grants are seen by different historians differently.

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The early medieval period was considered synonymous with Indian feudalism. Indian feudalism emerged as a separate school in 1970s. Its early proponents were Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi, Ram Sharan Sharma, and BNS Yadava. Later, Dwijendra Narayan Jha, RN Nandi, Suvira Jaiswal, Lallanji Gopal, and MGS Narayanan also contributed. It was Sharma who made the maximum contribution in building the theory of Indian feudalism. Kosambi explained his theory taking into account both "feudalism from above" and "feudalism from below". Whereas, Sharma was mainly interested in "feudalism from above". In 1965, Sharma proposed that decline of foreign trade is the cause of feudalism. This led to a great uproar in the Marxist circles. According to Marxism changes in a society comes from within not from outside. Changes in social, economic, and political structure originates from internal contradictions.

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In early 1970s, Sharma proposed the theory of urban decay. Urban decay resulted in decline of trade, collapse of artisan activity, disappearance of metallic money, and an overall decline which reduced the power of the state. In 1966, Dineshchandra Sircar criticized the feudalism model. But there was a difference in the style of criticism before 1979 and after 1979. Between 1965 and 1979 scholars were criticizing the feudalism school by using its own terminology (such as "decline of trade", "urban decay", "loss of metallic money", and "collapse of cities"). The critics were fighting on a battlefield chosen and prepared by the Indian feudalism advocates. The intellectual scenario changed in 1980s and onwards.

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If you want to defeat an old idea you have develop a new idea. In 1979, Harbans Mukhia wrote a paper titled, "Was There Feudalism in India?" He discussed that there was no manorial system in India like Europe. The climatic conditions were better in India than Europe. Indian soil was more fertile. Indian peasants owned their lands. In Europe, land and agricultural tools were given by the lord to the peasants. Peasants had to work on lord's land before tilling their own land.

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In 1980s, Burton Stein proposed the segmentary state theory which was another blow to the Indian feudalism model. Stein talked about the Brahmana-peasant alliance in the Tamil Nadu region where the maximum number of land grant inscriptions were found.

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To counter his critics Ram Sharan Sharma invented the kali age crisis theory to explain the cause land grants. He said that the Brahmanical system was threatened with the prosperity of Vaishyas and Shudras. They started challenging the Brahmana-Kshatriya superiority. The Brahmanical order and varna system were questioned. This led to the kali age crisis which is also prophesied in the Puranas and other texts. To overcome the crisis rulers started granting lands to Brahmanas so that they can bring order in the society. Land grants resulted in dissemination of Brahmanical ideology and expansion of agriculture. According to feudalism scholars expansion of agriculture was the only positive feature of the early medieval times. Otherwise, there was broadening of different castes, hierarchization, social inequality, and peasant exploitation. Sharma's arguments are compiled in his book "Early Medieval India Society: A Study in Feudalization" (2001).

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Another big blow to feudalism theory came from Hermann Kulke and Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya in 1980s and 1990s. Chattopadhyaya in his book "The Making of Early Medieval India" (1994) questions the very basis and thinking of feudalism school. He argues that in the period before 4th-5th century we see expansion of trade, development of new towns and cities, increase in metallic coins, expansion of artisan activity. It is not possible that suddenly after 4th-5th century the situation became totally opposite (as reconstructed by Sharma). Chattopadhyaya says that history is a process and everything is connected.

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Land grants were given by the state to consolidate its power. Most of the lands were granted in virgin territories to bring agricultural activity in those areas. Yellava Subbarayalu who has worked for 40 years in Tamil Nadu says that at any time in history not more than 1/5 of the total land was given to Brahmanas as grants. Then how can we build a theory of crisis kali age crisis over whole of India based on 20% of the total land. There is remarkable data collected from the Kaveri delta of pre-10th century where hierarchy had come in the Brahmanical settlements but there was communal ownership in non-Brahmanical settlements.

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Developments are not same everywhere. All areas do not change simultaneously. There is always a difference in time and expanse of growth. Social stratification and hierarchy have not been same in every village. There were no self-sufficient villages. People of different villages were interacting with each other through the use of temple, tank, and cremation ground. There were also caste marriages between different villages.

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The integrative model gives us the opportunity to explore the early medieval India in a better way because it it takes history as a process and focuses on the integrative nature of things. When two things integrate with each other they do not lose their identity, instead a they form a new phenomenon which has elements of both. All in all, we should not restrict ourselves to rigid models but be open to new ideas, interpretations, theories, and connections while reconstructing the history.

The Gahapati of the Pali Canon

Gahapati is the Pali word for Sanskrit grihapati which means head of the household. The concept of gahapati of Pali canon emerged between c. 600 BC and 300 AD. The society during this period was developing and becoming complex. According to Uma Chakravarti, gahapati is the household owner, rich agricultural owner, producer of wealth, and having a high social and economic status.

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The Agganna Sutta talks about three classes of people: the Khattiyas, the Brahmanas, and the gahapatis. The gahapatis had links with the king and enjoyed some degree of political power. The Buddhist texts give examples of influential and wealthy gahapatis who were lay followers of the Buddha and had donated lands to the sangha.

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The Buddhist texts also mention Brahmana gahapatis. Gahapatis came from Brahmana, Kshatriya, and Vaishya classes. Romila Thapar in her book, "From Lineage to State", explains the origin of gahapatis. She says that the gahapatis originated from the vish who used to give gifts to the Brahmanas and tributes to the ruler. Those members of the vish who became rich because of their agricultural wealth and prosperity came to be known as gahapatis. Later, gahapatis developed into setthi-gahapatis when they had wealth both in urban centres and villages. They were the combination of traders and agricultural land owners.